Sapiens - Юваль Ной Харари

Послесловие. Животные, ставшие богами.

70 тысяч лет назад Homo sapiens все еще был незначительным животным, жившим своей жизнью где-то на задворках Африки. В последующие тысячелетия он преобразился во владыку планеты, в ужас экосистемы. Сегодня он стоит на грани превращения в бога, обретения не только вечной молодости, но и божественной способности творить и разрушать. К сожалению, господство сапиенсов пока произвело мало того, чем мы могли бы гордиться. Мы подчинили себе окружающую среду, увеличили производство пищи, построили города и империи, связали все уголки Земли торговой сетью. Но разве страдания на планете стало меньше? Мощные революции, заметно расширявшие возможности человечества, далеко не всегда улучшали условия жизни отдельных людей и, как правило, причиняли ужасные несчастья другим живым существам. За последние десятилетия нам наконец удалось существенно улучшить положение человека, уменьшив масштабы голода, болезней и войн. Но положение других животных ухудшается еще быстрее, чем прежде, да и участь большей части человечества улучшилась так недавно и настолько эфемерно, что радоваться пока еще рано. Более того, научившись стольким замечательным вещам, мы так и не разобрались в своих целях, и мы все еще не удовлетворены. Мы строили каноэ, потом галеоны, потом пароходы, а теперь уже и космические корабли — но куда мы стремимся? Мы обрели невиданное прежде могущество, но понятия не имеем, как им распорядиться. Хуже того, люди становятся все безответственнее. Боги-самозванцы, мы считаемся только с законами физики и ни перед кем не отвечаем за свои поступки. Мы превратили в кошмар жизнь других животных, мы разрушаем экосистему планеты, думая лишь о своем комфорте и удовольствии — и ни в чем не находим счастья. Что может быть опаснее, чем разочарованные, безответственные боги, так и не осознавшие, чего они хотят?

Благодарности: Люди, которых я хотел бы поблагодарить за помощь и советы: Сараи Ахарони, Дорит Ахаронов, Амос Авизар, Цафрир Барзилаи, Ной Бенинга, Сюзанна Дин, Каспиан Деннис, Тирза Эйзенберг, Амир Финк, Сара Холлоуэй, Бенджамин 3. Кедар, Йосси Мори, Эйал Миллер, Давид Милнер, Джон Перселл, Саймон Родес, Шмуэль Рознер, Рами Ротхольц, Михаль Шавит, Идан Шерер, Элли Стил, Офер Стейниц, Михаэль Шенкар, Хаим Вацман, Гай Заславски и все преподаватели и студенты программы Всемирной истории в Еврейском университете Иерусалима. Особая благодарность Джареду Даймонду, который учил меня смотреть шире, Диего Холстейну, который вдохновил меня написать эту книгу, а также Ицику Яхаву и Деборе Харрис, которые помогли, чтобы ее прочел весь мир.

Примечания 1 Ann Gibbons, ‘Food for Thought: Did the First Cooked Meals Help Fuel the Dramatic Evolutionary Expansion of the Human Brain?', Science 316:5831 (2007), 1558-1560. 2 Robin Dunbar, Groomingy Gossipy and the Evolution of Language (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1998). 3 Michael L. Wilson and Richard W. Wrangham, ‘Intergroup Relations in Chimpanzees’, Annual Review of Anthropology 32 (2003), 363-392; M. McFarland Symington, ‘Fission-Fusion Social Organization in Ateles and Pan у International Journal of Primatologyy 11:1 (1990), 49; Colin A. Chapman and Lauren J. Chapman, ‘Determinants of Groups Size in Primates: The Importance of Travel Costs’, in On the Move: How and Why Animals Travel in Groups, ed. Sue Boinsky and Paul A. Garber (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2000), 26. 4 Dunbar, Groomingy Gossip, and the Evolution of Languagey 69-79; Leslie C. Aiello and R. I. M. Dunbar, ‘Neocortex Size, Group Size, and the Evolution of Language’, Current Anthropology 34:2 (1993), 189. Критику этого подхода см.: Christopher McCarthy et al., ‘Comparing Two Methods for Estimating Network Size’, Human Organization 60:1 (2001), 32; R. A. Hill and R. I. M. Dunbar, ‘Social Network Size in Humans’, Human Nature 14:1 (2003), 65. 5 Yvette Taborin, ‘Shells of the French Aurignacian and Perigordian’, in Before Lascaux: The Complete Record of the Early Upper Paleolithic, ed. Heidi Knecht, Anne Pike-Тау and Randall White (Boca Raton: CRC Press, 1993), 211-228. 6 G.R. Summerhayes, ‘Application of PIXE-PIGME to Archaeological Analysis of Changing Patterns of Obsidian Use in West New Britain, Papua New Guinea’, in Archaeological Obsidian Studies: Method and Theory, ed. Steven M. Shackley (New York: Plenum Press, 1998), 129-158. 7 Christopher Ryan and Cacilda Jetha, Sex at Dawn: The Prehistoric Origins of Modern Sexuality (New York: Harper, 2010). 8 Noel G. Butlin, Economics and the Dreamtime: A Hypothetical History (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 98-101; Richard Broome, Aboriginal Australians, 15; William Howell Edwards, An Introduction to Aboriginal Societies (Wentworth Falls, N.S.W.: Social Science Press, 1988), 52. 9 Fekri A. Hassan, Demographic Archaeology (New York: Academic Press, 1981), 196-199; Lewis Robert Binford, Constructing Frames of Reference: An Analytical Method for Archaeological Theory Building Using Hunter Gatherer and Environmental Data Sets (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001), 143. 10 Paul Seabright, The Company of Strangers: A Natural History of Economic Life (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2004), 261 n. 2; M. Henneberg and M. Steyn, ‘Trends in Cranial Capacity and Cranial Index in Subsaharan Africa During the Holocene’, American Journal of Human Biology 5:4 (1993): 473-479. 11 Nicholas G. Blurton Jones et al., ‘Antiquity of Postreproductive Life: Are There Modern Impact on Hunter-Gatherer Postreproductive Life Spans?’, American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002), 184-205. 12 Kim Hill and A. Magdalena Hurtado, Ache Life History: The Ecology and Demography of a Foraging People (New York: Aldine de Gruyter, 1996), 164,236. 13 Hill and Hurtado, Ache Life History, 78. 14 Vincenzo Formicola and Alexandra P. Buzhilova, ‘Double Child Burial from Sunghir (Russia): Pathology and Inferences for Upper Paleolithic Funerary Practices’, American Journal of Physical Anthropology 124:3 (2004), 189-198; Giacomo Giacobin£ ‘Richness and Diversity of Burial Rituals in the Upper Paleolithic’, Diogenes 54:2 (2007), 19-39. 151. J. N. Thorpe, ‘Anthropology, Archaeology, and the Origin of Warfare’, World Archaology 35:1 (2003), 145-165; Raymond C. Kelly, Warless Societies and the Origin of War (Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 2000); Azar Gat, War in Human Civilization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006); Lawrence H. Keeley, War before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996); Slavomil Vend, ‘Stone Age Warfare’, in Ancient Warfare: Archaeological Perspectives, ed. John Carman and Anthony Harding (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 1999), 57-73. 16 James F. O’Connel and Jim Allen, ‘Pre-LGM Sahul (Pleistocene Australia — New Guinea) and the Archeology of Early Modern Humans’, in Rethinking the Human Revolution: New Behavioural and Biological Perspectives on the Origin and Dispersal of Modern Humans, ed. Paul Mellars, Ofer BarYosef, Katie Boyle (Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2007), 395-410; James F. O’Connel and Jim Allen, ‘When Did Humans First Arrived in Grater Australia and Why Is It Important to Know?’, Evolutionary Anthropology 6:4 (1998), 132-146; James E O’Connel and Jim Allen, ‘Dating the Colonization of Sahul (Pleistocene Australia — New Guinea): A Review of Recent Research’, Journal of Radiological Science 31:6 (2004), 835-853; Jon M. Erlandson, ‘Anatomically Modern Humans, Примечания 505 Maritime Voyaging, and the Pleistocene Colonization of the Americas’, in The first Americans: the Pleistocene Colonization of the New World, ed. Nina G. Jablonski (San Francisco: University of California Press, 2002), 59-60, 63-64; Jon M. Erlandson and Torben C. Rick, Archeology Meets Marine Ecology: The Antiquity of Maritime Cultures and Human Impacts on Marine Fisheries and Ecosystems’, Annual Review of Marine Science 2 (2010), 231— 251; Atholl Anderson, ‘Slow Boats from China: Issues in the Prehistory of Indo-China Seafaring’, Modern Quaternary Research in Southeast Asia, 16 (2000) , 13-50; Robert G. Bednarik, ‘Maritime Navigation in the Lower and Middle Paleolithic’, Earth and Planetary Sciences 328 (1999), 559-560; Robert G. Bednarik, ‘Seafaring in the Pleistocene’, Cambridge Archaeological Journal 13:1 (2003), 41-66. 17 Timothy F. Flannery, The Future Eaters: An Ecological History of the Australasian Lands and Peoples (Port Melbourne, Vic.: Reed Books Australia, 1994); Anthony D. Barnosky et al., ‘Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents’, Science 306:5693 (2004): 70- 75; Bary W. Brook and David M. J. S. Bowman, ‘The Uncertain Blitzkrieg of Pleistocene Megafauna’, Journal of Biogeography 31:4 (2004), 517-523; Gifford H. Miller et al., ‘Ecosystem Collapse in Pleistocene Australia and a Human Role in Megafaunal Extinction,’ Science 309:5732 (2005), 287-290; Richard G. Roberts et al., ‘New Ages for the Last Australian Megafauna: Continent Wide Extinction about 46,000 Years Ago’, Science 292:5523 (2001) , 1888-1892. 18 Stephen Wroe and Judith Field, ‘A Review of Evidence for a Human Role in the Extinction of Australian Megafauna and an Alternative Explanation, Quaternary Science Reviews 25:21-22 (2006), 2692-2703; Barry W. Brooks et al., ‘Would the Australian Megafauna Have Become Extinct If Humans Had Never Colonised the Continent? Comments on “A Review of the Evidence for a Human Role in the Extinction of Australian Megafauna and an Alternative Explanation” by S. Wroe and J. Field’, Quaternary Science Reviews 26: 3-4 (2007), 560-564; Chris S. M. Turney et al., ‘Late-Surviving Megafauna in Tasmania, Australia, Implicate Human Involvement in their Extinction, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 105:34 (2008), 12150-12153. 19 John Alroy, ‘A Multispecies Overkill Simulation of the End-Pleistocene Megafaunal Mass Extinction, Science, 292:5523 (2001), 1893-1896; O’Connel and Allen, ‘Pre-LGM Sahul’, 400-401. 20 L.H. Keeley, ‘Proto-Agricultural Practices Among Hunter-Gatherers: A Cross-Cultural Survey’, in Last Hunters, First Farmers: New Perspectives on the Prehistoric Transition to Agriculture, ed. T. Douglas Price and Anne Birgitte Gebauer (Santa Fe, N.M.: School of American Research Press, 1995), 243-272; R. Jones, ‘Firestick Farming’, Australian Natural History 16 (1969), 224-228. 21 David J. Meltzer, First Peoples in a New World: Colonizing Ice Age America (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2009). 22 Paul L. Koch and Anthony D. Barnosky, ‘Late Quaternary Extinctions: State of the Debate, The Annual Review of Ecology Evolution, and Systematics 37 (2006), 215-250; Anthony D. Barnosky et al., Assessing the Causes of Late Pleistocene Extinctions on the Continents’, 70-75. 23 Карта выполнена no: Peter Bellwood, First Farmers: The Origins of Agricultural Societies (Malden: Blackwell Pub., 2005). 24 Azar Gat, War in Human Civilization (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2006), 130-131. 25 Katherine A. Spielmann, A Review: Dietary Restriction on HunterGatherer Women and the Implications for Fertility and Infant Mortality’, Human Ecology 17:3 (1989), 321-345. See also: Bruce Winterhalder and Eric Alder Smith, Analyzing Adaptive Strategies: Human Behavioral Ecology at Twenty Five’, Evolutionary Anthropology 9:2 (2000), 51-72. 26 Alain Bideau, Bertrand Desjardins and Hector Perez-Brignoli (eds.), Infant and Child Mortality in tde Past (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997); Edward Anthony Wrigley et al., English Population History from Family Reconstitution, 1580-1837 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 295-296, 303. 27 Manfred Heun et al., ‘Site of Einkorn Wheat Domestication Identified by DNA Fingerprints’, Science 278:5341 (1997), 1312-1314. 28 Charles Patterson, Eternal Treblinka: Our Treatment of Animals and the Holocaust (New York: Lantern Books, 2002), 9-10; Peter J. Ucko and G.W. Dimbleby (ed.), The Domestication and Exploitation of Plants and Animals (London: Duckworth, 1969), 259. 29 Avi Pinkas (ed.), Farmyard Animals in Israel — Researchy Humanism and Activity (Rishon Le-Ziyyon: The Association for Farmyard Animals, 2009 [Hebrew]), 169-199; “Milk Production — the Cow” [Hebrew], The Dairy Council, accessed March 22, 2012. 30 Edward Evan Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969); E.C. Amoroso and P.A. Jewell, ‘The Exploitation of the Milk-Ejection Reflex by Primitive People’, in Man and Cattle: Proceedings of the Symposium on Domestication at the Royal Anthropological Institute, Примечания 507 24-26 May 1960, ed. A.E. Mourant and F.E. Zeuner (London: The Royal Anthropological Institute, 1963), 129-134. 31 Johannes Nicolaisen, Ecology and Culture of the Pastoral Tuareg (Copenhagen: National Museum, 1963), 63. 32 Angus Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 2 (Paris: Development Centre of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development, 2006), 636; “Historical Estimates of World Population”, U.S. Census Bureau, accessed December 10, 2010, http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis. html. 33 Robert B. Mark, The Origins of the Modern World: A Global and Ecological Narrative (Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 2002), 24. 34 Raymond Westbrook, ‘Old Babylonian Period', in A History of Ancient Near Eastern Lawy vol. I, ed. Raymond Westbrook (Leiden: Brill, 2003), 361-430; Martha T. Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia and Asia Minor, 2nd ed. (Atlanta: Scholars Press, 1997), 71-142; M. E. J. Richardson, Hammurabis Laws: Text, Translation and Glossary (London: T and T Clark International, 2000). 35 Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, 76. 36 Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, 121. 37 Roth, Law Collections from Mesopotamia, 122-123. Ъ1 Roth, Law Collections, 133-134. 39 Constance Brittaine Bouchard, Strong of Body, Brave and Noble: Chivalry and Society in Medieval France (New York: Cornell University Press, 1998), 99; Mary Martin McLaughlin, ‘Survivors and Surrogates: Children and Parents from the Ninth to Thirteenth Centuries', in Medieval Families: Perspectives on Marriage, Household and Children, ed. Carol Neel (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 2004), 81 n. 81; Lise E. Hull, Britain s Medieval Castles (Westport: Praeger, 2006), 144. 40 Andrew Robinson, The Story of Writing (New York: Thames and Hudson, 1995), 63; Hans J. Nissen, Peter Damerow and Robert K. Englung, Archaic Bookkeeping: Writing and Techniques of Economic Administration in the Ancient Near East (Chicago, London: The University of Chicago Press, 1993), 36. 41 Marcia and Robert Ascher, Mathematics of the Incas- Code of the Quipu (New York: Dover Publications, 1981). 42 Gary Urton. Signs of the Inka Khipu (Austin: University of Texas Press, 2003); Galen Brokaw. A History of the Khipu (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010). 43 Stephen D. Houston (ed.), The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004), 222. 44 Sheldon Pollock, ‘Axialism and Empire’, in Axial Civilizations and World History, ed. Johann P. Arnason, S. N. Eisenstadt and Bjorn Wittrock (Leiden: Brill, 2005), 397-451 45 Harold M. Tanner, China: A History (Indianapolis: Hackett, Pub. Co., 2009), 34. 46 Ramesh Chandra, Identity and Genesis of Caste System in India (Delhi: Kalpaz Publications, 2005); Michael Bamshad et al., ‘Genetic Evidence on the Origins of Indian Caste Population, Genome Research 11 (2001): 904- 1004; Susan Bayly, Caste, Society and Politics in India from the Eighteenth Century to the Modern Age (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999). 47 Houston, First Writing, 196. 48 The Secretary-General, United Nations, Report of the Secretary-General on the In-depth Study on All Forms of Violence Against Women, delivered to the General Assembly, U.N. Doc. А/16/122/Add. 1 (July 6,2006), 89. 49 Sue Blundell, Women in Ancient Greece (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1995), 113-129, 132-133. 50 Francisco Lopez de Gomara, Historia de la Conquista de Mexico, vol. 1, ed. D. Joaquin Ramirez Cabanes (Mexico City: Editorial Pedro Robredo, 1943), 106. ' 51 Andrew M. Watson, ‘Back to Gold — and Silver, Economic History Review 20:1 (1967), 11-12; Jasim Alubudi, Repertorio Bibliografico del Islam (Madrid: Vision Libros, 2003), 194. 52 Watson, ‘Back to Gold — and Silver, 17-18. 53 David Graeber, Debt: The First 5,000 Years (Brooklyn, N.Y.: Melville House, 2011). 54 Glyn Davies, A History of Money: from Ancient Times to the Present Day (Cardiff: University of Wales Press, 1994), 15. 55 Szymon Laks, Music of Another World, trans. Chester A. Kisiel (Evanston, 111.: Northwestern University Press, 1989), 88-89. «Рынок» Освенцима был ограничен определенными категориями заключенных, и условия резко менялись в зависимости от времени. 56 Niall Ferguson, The Ascent of Money (New York: The Penguin Press, 2008), 4. 57 Сведения о ячменных деньгах я почерпнул из неопубликованной диссертации: Refael Benvenisti, Economic Institutions of Ancient Assyrian Trade in the Twentieth to Eighteenth Centuries BC (Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Unpublished Ph.D. thesis, 2011). См. также Norman Yoffee, ‘The Economy of Ancient Western Asia’, in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, ed. J.M. Sasson (New York: C. Scribners Sons, 1995), Примечания 509 1387-1399; R. К. Englund, ‘Proto-Cuneiform Account-Books and Journals’, in Creating Economic Order: Record-keepingy Standardization, and the Development of Accounting in the Ancient Near East, ed. Michael Hudson and Cornelia Wunsch (Bethesda, MD: CDL Press, 2004), 21-46; Marvin A. Powell, ‘A Contribution to the History of Money in Mesopotamia prior to the Invention of Coinage, in Festschrift Lubor MatouS, ed. B. Hruska and G. Komoroczy (Budapest: Eotvos Lorand Tudomanyegyetem, 1978), 211— 243; Marvin A. Powell, ‘Money in Mesopotamia, Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, 39:3 (1996), 224-242; John F. Robertson, ‘The Social and Economic Organization of Ancient Mesopotamian Temples’, in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, ed. Sasson, 443-500; M. Silver, ‘Modern Ancients’, in Commerce and Monetary Systems in the Ancient World: Means of Transmission and Cultural Interaction, ed. R. Rollinger and U. Christoph (Stuttgart: Steiner, 2004), 65-87; Daniel C. Snell, ‘Methods of Exchange and Coinage in Ancient Western Asia, in Civilizations of the Ancient Near East, vol. 1, ed. Sasson, 1487-1497. 58 Nahum Megged, The Aztecs (Tel Aviv: Dvir, 1999 [Hebrew]), 103. 59 Тацит. Агрикола, гл. XXX. (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1958), pp. 220-221. 60 A. Fienup-Riordan, The Nelson Island Eskimo: Social Structure and Ritual Distribution (Anchorage: Alaska Pacific University Press, 1983), p. 10. 61 Yuri Pines, ‘Nation States, Globalization and a United Empire — the Chinese Experience (third to fifth centuries BC)’, Historia 15 (1995), 54 [Hebrew]. 62 Alexander Yakobson, ‘Us and Them: Empire, Memory and Identity in Claudius’ Speech on Bringing Gauls into the Roman Senate’, in On Memory: An Interdisciplinary Approach, ed. Doron Mendels (Oxford: Peter Land, 2007), 23-24. 63 W.H.C. Frend, Martyrdom and Persecution in the Early Church (Cambridgejames Clarke and Co., 2008), 536-537. 64 Robert Jean Knecht, The Rise and Fall of Renaissance France, 1483- 1610 (London: Fontana Press, 1996), 424. 65 Marie Harm and Hermann Wiehle, Lebenskunde fuer Mittelschulen — Fuenfter Teil. Klasse 5 fuer Jungen (Halle: Hermann Schroedel Verlag, 1942), 152-157. 66 Susan Blackmore, The Meme Machine (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999). 67 David Christian, Maps of Time: An Introduction to Big History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2004), 344-345; Angus Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 2 (Paris: Development Centre of the Organization of Economic Co-operation and Development, 2001), 636; ‘Historical Estimates of World Population, U.S. Census Bureau, accessed December 10, 2010, http://www.census.gov/ipc/www/worldhis.html. 68 Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 1, 261. 69 "Gross Domestic Product 2009", The World Bank, Data and Statistics, accessed December 10,2010, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/ DATASTATISTICS/Resources/GDP.pdf. 70 Christian, Maps of Time, 141. 71 Самое крупное современное грузовое судно перевозит около 100 тысяч тонн. В 1470 году совокупный тоннаж мирового торгового флота составлял 730 тысяч тонн (Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 1,97). 72 Крупнейший мировой банк — Королевский банк Шотландии — на 2007 год хранил депозиты общей стоимостью 1,3 триллиона долларов. Это впятеро больше совокупного мирового производства за 1500 год. См. ‘Annual Report and Accounts 2008*, The Royal Bank of Scotland, 35, accessed December 10,2010, http://files.shareholder. com/downloads/RBS/626570033x0x278481/eb7a003a-5c9b-41ef-bad3- 81fb98a6c823/RBS_GRA_2008_09_03_09.pdf. 73 Ferguson, Ascent of Money, 185-198. 74 Jennie B. Dormah et al., ‘The age-1 and daf-2 Genes Function in a Common Pathway to Control the Lifespan of Caenorhabditis elegans Genetics 141:4 (1995), 1399-1406; Koen Houthoofd et al., ‘Life Extension via Dietary Restriction is Independent of the Ins/IGF-1 Signaling Pathway in Caenorhabditis elegans Experimental Gerontology 38:9 (2003), 947-954. 75 Maddison, The World Economy, vol. 1,31; Wrigley, English Population History, 295; Christian, Maps of Time, 450, 452; ‘World Health Statistic Report 2009’, 35-45, World Health Organization, accessed December 10, 2010 http://www.who.int/whosis/whostat/EN_WHS09_Full.pdf. 76 Wrigley, English Population History, 296. 77 Там же. 78 Michael Prestwich, Edward I (Berkley: University of California Press, 1988), 125-126. 79 Stephen R. Bown, Scurvy: How a Surgeon, a Mariner, and a Gentleman Solved the Greatest Medical Mystery of the Age of Sail (New York: Thomas Dunne Books, St. Matins Press, 2004); Kenneth John Carpenter, The History of Scurvy and Vitamin C (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986). 80 James Cook, The Explorations of Captain James Cook in the Pacific, as Told by Selections of his Own Journals 1768-1779, ed. Archibald Grenfell Price (New York: Dover Publications, 1971), 16-17; Gananath Obeyesekere, The Apotheosis of Captain Cook: European Mythmaking in Примечания 511 the Pacific (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1992), 5; J.C. Beaglehole, ed., The Journals of Captain James Cook on His Voyages of Discovery, vol. 1 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1968), 588. 81 Mark, Origins of the Modern World, 81. 82 Christian, Maps of Time, 436. 83 John Darwin, After Tamerlane: The Global History of Empire since 1405 (London: Allen Lane, 2007), 239. 84 Soli Shahvar, ‘Railroads i. The First Railroad Built and Operated in Persia^ in the Online Edition of Encyclopaedia Iranica, last modified April 7, 2008, http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/railroads-i; Charles Issawi, ‘The Iranian Economy 1925-1975: Fifty Years of Economic Development’, in Iran under the PahlaviSy ed. George Lenczowski (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1978), 156. 85 Mark, The Origins of the Modern World, 46. 86 Kirkpatrik Sale, Christopher Columbus and the Conquest of Paradise (London: Tauris Parke Paperbacks, 2006), 7-13. 87 Edward M. Spiers, The Army and Society: 1815-1914 (London: Longman, 1980), 121; Robin Moore, ‘Imperial India, 1858-1914’, in The Oxford History of the British Empire: The Nineteenth Century; vol. 3, ed. Andrew Porter (New York: Oxford University Press, 1999), 442. 88 Vinita Damodaran, ‘Famine in Bengal: A Comparison of the 1770 Famrtne in Bengal and the 1897 Famine in Chotanagpur’, The Medieval History Journal 10: 1-2 (2007), 151. 89 Maddison, World Economy, vol. 1, 261, 264; ‘Gross National Income Per Capita 2009, Atlas Method and PPP’, The World Bank, accessed December 10,2010, http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/ Resources/GNIPC.pdf. 90 Этот пример с пекарней не слишком точен по расчетам. Поскольку банк вправе одалживать $10 на каждый имеющийся у него $1, банки могут выдавать предпринимателям по $909 тысяч из миллиона, резервируя $91 тысячу. Но, чтобы облегчить жизнь читателям, я предпочел круглые числа. Тем более банки не так уж и строго придерживаются этих правил. 91 Carl Trocki, Opium, Empire and the Global Political Economy (New York: Routledge, 1999), 91. 92 Georges Nzongola-Ntalaja, The Congo from Leopold to Kabila: A Peoples History (London: Zed Books, 2002), 22. 93 Mark, Origins of the Modern World, 109. 94 Nathan S. Lewis and Daniel G. Nocera, ‘Powering the Planet: Chemical Challenges in Solar Energy Utilization, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 103:43 (2006), 15731. 95 Kazuhisa Miyamoto (ed.), ‘Renewable Biological Systems for Alternative Sustainable Energy Production, FAO Agricultural Services Bulletin 128 (Osaka: Osaka University, 1997), chapter 2.1.1, accessed December 10, 2010, http://www.fao.org/docrep/W7241E/w7241e06.ht m#2.1.1percent20solarpercent20energy; James Barber, ‘Biological Solar Energy’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A 365:1853 (2007), 1007 96 ‘International Energy Outlook 2010’, U.S. Energy Information Administration, 9, accessed December 10,2010, http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/ ieo/pdf/0484(2010).pdf. 97 S. Venetsky, ‘"Silver" from Clay’, Metallurgist 13:7 (1969), 451; Aftalion, Fred, A History of the International Chemical Industry (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1991), 64; A. J. Downs, Chemistry of Aluminum, Gallium, Indium and Thallium (Glasgow: Blackie Academic 8c Professional, 1993), 15. 98 Jan Willem Erisman et al, ‘How a Century of Ammonia Synthesis Changed the World’ in Nature Geoscience 1 (2008), 637. 99 G. J. Benson and В. E. Rollin (eds.), The Well-Being of Farm Animals: Challenges and Solutions (Ames, LA: Blackwell, 2004); M .C. Appleby, J. A. Mench, and B. O. Hughes, Poultry Behaviour and Welfare (Wallingford: CABI Publishing, 2004); J. Webster, Animal Welfare: Limping Towards Eden (Oxford: Blackwell Publishing, 2005); C. Druce and P. Lymbery, Outlawed in Europe: How America Is Falling Behind Europe in Farm Animal Welfare (New York: Archimedean Press, 2002). 100 Harry Harlow and Robert Zimmermann, ‘Affectional Responses in the Infant Monkey’, Science 130: 3373 (1959), 421-432; Harry Harlow, ‘The Nature of Love’, American Psychologist 13 (1958), 673-685; Laurens D. Young et al., 'Early stress and later response to seprate in rhesus monkeys', American Journal of Psychiatry 130:4 (1973), 400-405; K. D. Broad, J. P. Curley and E. B. Keverne, 'Mother-infant bonding and the evolution of mammalian social relationships’, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Soceity В 361:1476 (2006), 2199-2214; Florent Pittet et al., ‘Effects of maternal experience on fearfulness and maternal behaviour in a precocial bird’, Animal Behavior (March 2013), In Press-available online at: http://www.sciehcedirect.com/ science/article/pii/S0003347213000547. 101 "National Institute of Food and Agriculture", United States Department of Agriculture, accessed December 10,2010, http://www.csrees.usda. gov/qlinks/extension.html. 102 Vaclav Smil, The Earths Biosphere: Evolution Dynamics, and Change (Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 2002); Sarah Catherine Walpole et al., ‘The Примечания 513 Weight of Nations: An Estimation of Adult Human Biomass’, BMC Public Health 12:439 (2012), http://www.biomedcentral.com/1471-2458/12/439. 103 William T. Jackman, The Development of Transportation in Modern England (London: Frank Cass and со., 1966), 324-327; H. J. Dyos and D.H. Aldcroft, British Transport — An economic survey from the seventeenth century to the twentieth (Leicester: Leicester University Press, 1969), 124-131; Wolfgang Schivelbusch, The Railway Journey: The Industrialization of Time and Space in the 19th Century (Berkeley: Univeristy of California Press, 1986). 104 Подробное обсуждение беспрецедентного мира последних десятилетий см. в особенности Steven Pinker, The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined (New York: Viking, 2011); Joshua S. Goldstein, Winning the War on War: The Decline of Armed Conflict Worldwide (New York, N.Y.: Dutton, 2011); Gat, War in Human Civilization. 105 ‘World Report on Violence and Health: Summary, Geneva 2002’, World Health Organization, accessed December 10,2010, http://www.who. int/whr/2001/en/whr0 l_annex_en.pdf. Уровень смертности в прежние эпохи см. Lawrence Н. Keeley, War before Civilization: The Myth of the Peaceful Savage (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996). 106 ‘World Health Report, 2004’, World Health Organization, 124, accessed 10 December, 2010, http://www.who.int/whr/2004/en/report04_en.pdf. 107 Raymond C. Kelly, Warless Societies and the Origin of War (Ann Arbjjr: University of Michigan Press, 2000), 21. See also Gat, War in Human Civilization, 129-131; Keeley, War before Civilization. 108 Manuel Eisner, ‘Modernization, Self-Control and Lethal Violence’, British Journal of Criminology 41:4 (2001), 618-638; Manuel Eisner, ‘LongTerm Historical Trends in Violent Crime’, Crime and Justice: A Review of Research 30 (2003), 83-142; ‘World Report on Violence and Health: Summary, Geneva 2002’, World Health Organization, accessed December 10, 2010, http://www.who.int/whr/2001/en/whr01_annex_en.pdf; ‘World Health Report, 2004’, World Health Organization, 124, accessed 10 December, 2010, http://www.who.int/whr/2004/en/report04_en.pdf. 109 Napoleon Chagnon, Yanomamo: The Fierce People (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968); Keeley, War before Civilization. 110 О психологии и биохимии счастья полезно почитать: Jonathan Haidt, The Happiness Hypothesis:Finding Modern Truth in Ancient Wisdom (New York: Basic Books, 2006); R. Wright, The Moral Animal: Evolutionary Psychology and Everyday Life (New York: Vintage Books, 1994); M. Csikszentmihalyi, ‘If We Are So Rich, Why Aren’t We Happy?’, American Psychologist 54:10 (1999): 821-827; F. A. Huppert, N. Baylis and B. Keverne, ed., The Science of Well-Being (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2005); Michael Argyle, The Psychology of Happiness, 2nd edition (New York: Routledge, 2001); Ed Diener (ed.), Assessing Well-Being: The Collected Works of Ed Diener (New York: Springer, 2009); Michael Eid and Randy J. Larsen (eds.)> The Science of Subjective Well-Being (New York: Guilford Press, 2008); Richard A. Easterlin (ed.), Happiness in Economics (Cheltenham: Edward Elgar Pub., 2002); Richard Layard, Happiness: Lessons from a New Science (New York: Penguin, 2005). 111 Kahneman et al., “A Survey Method for Characterizing Daily Life experience: The Day Reconstruction Method”, Science 3 (2004): 1776-1780; Inglehart et al., "Development, Freedom, and Rising Happiness," 278-281. 112 D. M. McMahon, The Pursuit of Happiness: A History from the Greeks to the Present (London: Allen Lane, 2006). 113 Keith T. Paige et al., ‘De Novo Cartilage Generation Using Calcium Alginate-Chondrocyte Constructs’, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery 97:1 (1996), 168-78. 114 David Biello, ‘Bacteria Transformed into Biofuels Refineries’, Scientific American, January 27, 2010, accessed December 10, 2010, http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=bacteriatransformed-into-biofuel-refineries. 115 Gary Walsh, ‘Therapeutic Insulins and Their Large-Scale Manufacture’, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 67:2 (2005), 151-159. 116 James G. Wallis et al., ‘Expression of a Synthetic Antifreeze Protein in Potato Reduces Electrolyte Release at Freezing Temperatures’, Plant Molecular Biology 35:3 (1997), 323-330. 117 Robert J. Wall et al., ‘Genetically Enhanced Cows Resist Intramammary Staphylococcus Aureus Infection, Nature Biotechnology 23:4 (2005), 445-451. 118 Liangxue Lai et al., ‘Generation of Cloned Transgenic Pigs Rich in Omega-3 Fatty Acids’, Nature Biotechnology 24:4 (2006), 435-436. 119 Ya-Ping Tang et al., ‘Genetic Enhancement of Learning and Memory in Mice’, Nature 401 (1999), 63-69. 120 Zoe R. Donaldson and Larry J. Young, ‘Oxytocin, Vasopressin, and the Neurogenetics of Sociality’, Science 322:5903 (2008), 900-904; Zoe R. Donaldson, ‘Production of Germline Transgenic Prairie Voles (Microtus Ochrogaster) Using Lentiviral Vectors’, Biology of Reproduction 81:6 (2009), 1189-1195. 121 Terri Pous, ‘Siberian Discovery Could Bring Scientists Closer to Cloning Woolly Mammoth’, Time, September 17, 2012, accessed February 19, 2013; Pasqualino Loi et al, ‘Biological time machines: a realistic approach for cloning an extinct mammal’, Endangered Species Research 14 Примечания 515 (2011), 227-233; Leon Huynen, Craig D. Millar and David M. Lambert, ‘Resurrecting ancient animal genomes: The extinct moa and more, Bioessays 34 (2012), 661-669. 122 Nicholas Wade, ‘Scientists in Germany Draft Neanderthal Genome’, New York Times, February 12,2009, accessed December 10,2010. Zack Zorich, ‘Should We Clone Neanderthals?’, Archaeology 63:2 (2009), accessed 10 December, 2010, http://www.archaeology.org/1003/etc/ neanderthals.html. 123 Robert H. Waterston et al., ‘Initial Sequencing and Comparative Analysis of the Mouse Genome’, Nature 420:6915 (2002), 520. 124 ‘Hybrid Insect Micro Electromechanical Systems (HI-MEMS)’, Microsystems Technology Office, DARPA, accessed March 22, 2012, http://www.darpa.mil/Our_Work/MTO/Programs/Hybrid_Insect_ Micro_Electromechanical_Systems_percent28HI-MEMSpercent29.aspx. See also: Sally Adee, ‘Nuclear-Powered Transponder for Cyborg Insect’, IEEE Spectrumy December 2009, accessed December 10, 2010, Jessica Marshall, ‘The Fly Who Bugged Me’, New Scientist 197:2646 (2008), 40-43; Emily Singer, ‘Send In the Rescue Rats’, New Scientist 183:2466 (2004), 21-22; Susan Brown, ‘Stealth Sharks to Patrol the High Seas’, New Scientist 189:2541 (2006), 30-31. 125 Bill Christensen, ‘Military Plans Cyborg Sharks’, Live Science, March 7, 2006, accessed December 10, 2010, . 126 ‘Cochlear Implants’, National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, accessed March 22, 2012, . 127 Retina Implant, . 128 David Brown, ‘For 1st Woman With Bionic Arm, a New Life Is Within Reach’, The Washington Post, September 14, 2006, accessed December 10, 2010, . 129 Miguel Nicolelis, Beyond Boundaries: The New Neuroscience of Connecting Brains and Machines - and How It Will Change Our Lives (New York: Times Books, 2011). 130 Chris Berdik, ‘Turning Thought into Words', BU Today, October 15, 2008, accessed March 22, 2012, http://www.bu.edu/today/2008/ turning-thoughts-into-words/. 131 Jonathan Fildes, ‘Artificial Brain “10 years away”', BBC News, July 22, 2009, accessed 19 September, 2012, . 132 Radoje Drmanac et al., ‘Human Genome Sequencing Using Unchained Base Reads on Self-Assembling DNA Nanoarrays', Science 327:5961 (2010), 78-81; ‘Complete Genomics website: http://www.completegenomics.com/; Rob Waters, ‘Complete Genomics Gets Gene Sequencing under $5000 (Update 1)', Bloomberg, November 5, 2009, accessed December 10, 2010; http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=newsarchiveandsid=aWutnyE4S oWw; Fergus Walsh, ‘Era of Personalized Medicine Awaits', BBC News, last updated April 8,2009, accessed March 22,2012, http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/ health/7954968.stm; Leena Rao, ‘PayPal Co-Founder And Founders Fund Partner Joins DNA Sequencing Firm Halcyon Molecular', TechCrunch, September 24, 2009, accessed December 10, 2010, http://techcrunch. com/2009/09/24/paypal-co-founder-and-founders-fund-partner-joinsdna-sequencing-firm-halcyon-molecular/. )