Новые законы робототехники. Апология человеческих знаний в эпоху искусственного интеллекта - Фрэнк Паскуале

354

Abby Ohlheiser, “Three Days after Removing Human Editors, Facebook Is Already Trending Fake News,” Washington Post, August 29, 2016, https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/the-intersect/wp/ 2016/08/29/a-fake-headline-about-megyn-kelly-was-trending-on-facebook/?utm_term=.f857ac42b2e9; “Facebook: ‘No Evidence’ Conservative Stories Were Suppressed,” CBS News, May 10, 2016, http:// www.cbsnews.com/news/facebook-no-evidence-conservative-stories-trending-suppressed-gizmodo/.

355

Josh Sternberg, “Layoffs and Local Journalism,” Media Nut, May 14, 2020, https://medianut.substack.eom/p/layoffs-and-local-journalism.

356

Rachael Revesz, “Steve Bannon’s Data Firm in Talks for Lucrative White House Contracts,” Independent, November 23, 2016, http:// www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/cambridge-analytica-steve-bannon-robert-rebekah-mercer-donald-trump – conflicts-of-interest-white-a7435536.html; Josh Feldman, “CIA Concluded Russia Intervened in Election to Help Trump, WaPo Reports,” Mediaite, December 9, 2016, http://www.mediaite.com/online/cia-concluded-russia-intervened-in-election-to-help-trump-wapo-reports/.

357

Will Oremus, “The Prose of the Machines,” Slate, July 14, 2014, http:// www.slate.com/articles/technology/technology/2014/o7/automat-ed_insights_to_write_ap_earnings_reports_why_robots_can_t_ take_j ournalis ts. html.

358

Thorstein Veblen, Absentee Ownership and Business Enterprise in Recent Times (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1923); Christopher Meek, Warner Woodworth, and W Gibb Dyer, Managing by the Numbers: Absentee Ownership and the Decline of American Industry (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1988).

359

Проблема еще серьезнее за границей. Марк Цукерберг однажды отметил: «Белка, которая умерла у вас в саду, может быть для вас важнее, чем люди, умирающие в Африке». См.: Jaigris Hodson, “When a Squirrel Dies: The Rapid Decline of Local News,” The Conversation, September 13, 2017, https://theconversation.com/when-a-squirrel-dies-the-rapid-decline-of-local-news-82120. Это замечание стало честным отражением неоколониальной ментальности крупнейших технологических фирм. См.: Nick Couldry and Ulises A. Mejias, The Costs of Connection How Data Is Colonizing Human Life and Appropriating It for Capitalism (Redwood City: Stanford University Press, 2019).

360

Rahel Jaeggi, Alienation (trans. Frederick Neuhouser and Alan E. Smith) (New York: Columbia University Press, 2014), 1.

361

Britt Paris and Joan Donovan, Deepfakes and Cheap Fakes: The Manipulation of Audio and Visual Evidence (New York: Data & Society, 2019).

362

Mike Butcher, “The Robot-Recruiter Is Coming – VCV’s Al Will Read Your Face in a Job Interview,” TechCrunch, April 23, 2019, https:// techcrunch.com/2019/o4/23/the-robot-recruiter-is-coming-vcvs-ai-will-read-your-face-in-a-job-interview/.

363

Miranda Bogen and Aaron Rieke, Help Wanted: An Examination of Hiring Algorithms, Equity, and Bias (Washington, DC: Upturn, 2018), htt-ps://www. upturn.org/static/reports/2018/hiring-algorithms/files/ Upturn%20 – %20Help%20Wanted%20-%20An%20Exploration%20 of%20Hiring%20Algorithms,%20Equity%20and%20Bias.pdf.

364

Есть много примеров того, как технология, оценивающая людей, может воспроизводить и закреплять прежние формы незаслуженных привилегий, нечестных и неблагоприятных условий. См.: Ruha Benjamin, Race after Technology: Abolitionist Tools for the New Jim Code (Cambridge, UK: Polity Press, 2019); Safiya Umo-ja Noble, Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism (New York: New York University Press, 2018).

365

“Fairness, Accountability, and Transparency in Machine Learning,” FAT / ML, accessed May 1, 2020, https://www.fatml.org/.

366

James Vincent, “All of These Faces Are Fake Celebrities Spawned by Al,” Verge, October 30, 2017, https://www.theverge.com/2017/10/30/ 16569402/ai-generate-fake-faces-celebs-nvidia-gan.

367

Daniel J. Solove, “Privacy and Power: Computer Databases and Metaphors for Information Privacy,” Stanford Law Review 53 (2001): 1393–1462; Philip K. Dick, Ubik (New York: Doubleday, 1969).

368

Jathan Sadowski and Frank Pasquale, “The Spectrum of Control: A Social Theory of the Smart City,” First Monday 20, no. 7 (2015), htt-ps://doi.org/io.52io/fm.v2017.59O3.

369

Дискуссию специалистов по компьютерным наукам, использующим неэффективность в дизайне для того, чтобы «оставить место для человеческих ценностей», см.: Ohm and Jonathan Frankel, “Desirable Inefficiency,” Florida Law Review 70, no. 4 (2018): 777–838. Обсуждение того, как неэффективность дизайна противоречит устремлениям программистов, см. в: Clive Thompson, “Coders’ Primal Urge to Kill Inefficiency – Everywhere,” Wired, March 19, 2019, https://www.wired.com/story/coders-efficiency-is-beautiful/?curator=TechREDEF.

370

Arjun Jayadev and Samuel Bowles, “Guard Labor,” Journal of Development Economics no. 2 (2006): 328–348.

371

I. Bennett Capers, “Afrofuturism, Critical Race Theory, and Policing in the Year 2044,” New York University Law Review 94, no. 1 (2019): 1-60. См. также: William H. Simon, “In Defense of the Panopticon,” Boston Review 39, no. 5 (2014): 58–74.

372

Anthony Funnell, “Internet of Incarceration: How Al Could Put an End to Prisons As We Know Them,” ABC News, August 14, 2017, https://www.abc.net.au/news/2017-o8-14/how-ai-could-put-an-end-to-prisons-as-we-know-them/8794910.

373

Funnell, “Internet of Incarceration.”

374

Benjamin, Race after Technology, 137.

375

В az Dreisinger, Incarceration Nations: A Journey to Justice in Prisons around the World (New York: Other Press, 2016).

376

Big Brother Watch, “Face Off: Stop the Police Using Authoritarian Facial Recognition Cameras,” March 15, 2019, https://bigbrotherwatch. org.uk/all-campaigns/face-off-campaign/#breakdown.

377

Kevin Arthur, “Hartzog and Selinger: Ban Facial Recognition,” Question Technology (blog), August 4, 2018, https://www.questiontechnol-0gy.0rg/2018/08/04/hartz0g-and-selinger-ban-facial-rec0gniti0n/; Woodrow Hartzog and Evan Selinger, “Surveillance As Loss of Obscurity,” Washington and Lee Law Review 72 (2015): 1343–1388.

378

Joy Buolamwini and Timnit Gebru, “Gender Shades: Intersectional Accuracy Disparities in Commercial Gender Classification,” Proceedings of Machine Learning Research 81 (2018): 1-15, http://proceedings. mlr.press/v8i/buolamwini18a/buolamwini18a.pdf.

379

Richard Feloni, “An MIT Researcher Who Analyzed Facial Recognition Software Found Eliminating Bias in Al Is a Matter of Priorities,” Business Insider, January 23, 2019, https://www.businessinsider.com/ biases-ethics-facial-recognition-ai-mit-joy-buolamwini-2019-1.

380

Jacob Snow, “Amazon’s Face Recognition Falsely Matched 28 Members of Congress with Mugshots,” ACLU, July 26, 2018, https:// www.aclu.org/blog/privacy-technology/surveillance-technologies/ amazons-face-recognition-falsely-matched-28.

381

Zoe Samudzi,“BotsAreTerribleat Recognizing Black Faces. Let’s Keep It that Way,” Daily Beast, February 8,2019, https://www.thedailybeast.com/ bots-are-terrible-at-recognizing-black-faces-lets-keep-it-that-way.

382

Alondra Nelson ((Hjalondra), “Algorithmic Accountability Is Tremendously Important. Full Stop,” Twitter, February 9, 208, 5:48 p. m., htt-ps://twitter.com/alondra/status/962095979553OO9665.

383

Evan Selinger and Woodrow Hartzog, “What Happens When Employers Can Read Your Facial Expressions?” New York Times, October 17,